作物病害管理

 

壹、Whetzel, H. H.(1929)之作物病害防治四大原則:

 

一、拒病(exclusion):為積極而徹底之根本措施,可以阻止新病害或新病菌系由一地區(國家)進入另一地區(國家),其方法有二:檢疫(plant quarantine)及種子檢查(seed certification)

 

二、除病(eradication):適用於新引入而尚未立足的病害,將病原菌消滅的措施。對於蔓延己久的老病害,每年將罹病植株鏟除或罹病枝條修剪、砍除中間寄主、進行種苗消毒。其方法有:溫水處理( hot water treatment )、藥劑處理、剪除罹病部份、鏟除罹病植株等。

 

三、保護(protection):於作物生育期間利用各種措施,如噴灑殺蟲劑、輪作(crop rotation)、調整土壤酸鹼度等達到保護作物,減少病害之發生,達到生產的目的。

 

四、免疫(immunization)或抗病育種(crop breeding for disease resistance):如交叉保護、誘導抗病性等,利用選種法或雜交育種法,選出或育成抗病育種。

 

貳、作物病害的防治方法:

 

一、法規防治法(regulatory method) = 拒病(exclusion)原則:杜絕病原自國外或外 地引入新病原菌或品系。亦包括國內檢疫。檢疫的對象包括植物體、農產品、土壤等。

 

二、物理防治法(physical method)

1.溫湯(熱水)浸種:

2.熱空氣處理:

3.蒸氣消毒:

4.太陽能(solar energy)處理:

5.採收後處理:

6.放射線處理(treatment with radiation)

7.調節光線:

 

三、耕種防治法(culture method)

1.避病(avoidance)

2.田間衛生(sanitation)

3.輪作(crop rotation)

4.調節土壤pH值:

5.淹水(flooding)

6.改善植物環境:

7.氰氮化鈣(CaCN, calcium cyanamide, 烏肥)

8.採收及調製過程應避免機械傷害造成的傷口:

9.採用健康種苗:

10.嫁接抗病性砧木:

11.土壤添加物:

 

四、生物防治法(biological control):廣義泛指調整寄主、環境或其他微生物,造成拮抗微生物數量及活性增加,以降低病原數量及致病能力者。狹義單指使用拮抗微生物使病原存活及活力降低,以減少病害發生的方法。

1.抗病育種:

(1).組織培養苗抗病性變異株篩選:本省自1983年開始大量篩選香蕉組織培養苗變異蕉株對於香蕉黃葉病之抗病性。

(2).利用選種法或雜交育種法,選出或育成抗病育種。

(3).基因轉殖植物(transgenic plant):育種學家選殖一適當基因,利用載體將所選殖的基因送入植物體內,獲得一基因轉殖植株。

 

2.(狹義)生物防治原理:

   (1).抗生作用(antibiotic)─拮抗微生物代謝物抑制病原生長,及溶解作用(lysis)─造成病原破壞溶解者。

   (2).競爭()作用(competition):拮抗微生物與病原彼此爭奪營養、生存空間、氧氣、水分等。抑制病原生長及殘存。

   (3).重寄生(hyperparasitism):例如噬菌體(phage)寄生於植物病原性細菌(phytopathogenic bacteria)Tricoderma harzianum寄生於菌核病菌S. sclerotiorum、立枯絲核菌Rhizoctonia solani

   (4).細胞壁分解酵素作用(cell wall degrading enzymes)

   (5).誘導作物產生抗病性(induced systemic resistance)

 

五、化學防治法:

    農藥(pesticide)定義:農業經營上為保護農作物及其生產物或改良作物的目的所使用的化學藥品。此外,凡能增強此等藥劑之殺滅效力所使用的補助劑,亦包括之。按使用的對象分為殺菌劑(fungicide)、殺細菌劑(bactericide)、殺線蟲劑(nematicide)、殺蟲劑(insecticide)等。

 

六、綜合防治法(integrated control):就是將兩種以上的不同病害防治方法同時施用於田間防治某種病害的措施。如此不同的防治法可以互相彌補某一防治法之缺失,使病害防治效果更長久、更顯著。

 

 

參、Agrios, G. N.(1997)綜合上述原則與方法之作物病害管理:

 

Ⅰ、自寄主排拒病原的防治方法(Control Methods That Exclude the Pathogen from the Host)

 

1.檢疫(Quarantines)及檢查(Inspections)作物認證(crop certification)

2.環境因子不適合病原生長(Evasion of Avoidance of Pathogen):採種時最好是旱季,避免病原經由種子傳播。逃病(evasion)

逃病(avoidance)

3.選擇無病原菌的繁殖體(Use of Pathogen-free Propagating Material):如種子或作物的繁殖體。

4.表皮覆蓋物(epidermal coatings)

 

Ⅱ、除滅或減少病原接種源的防治方法(Control Methods That Eradicate or Reduce Pathogen Inoculum)

 

1.以耕作方法除滅或減少病原接種源(Cultural Methods That Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum)

(1).剷除病株(host eradication)

(2).輪作(crop rotation):病原有其寄主範圍,無寄主時會殘存,但接種源數量會逐漸減少。

(3).田間衛生(sanitation)

(4).製造不適病原生存之環境:如白粉病菌孢子忌水,可定期噴霧,減輕發病。

(5).誘蟲帶、誘蟲板、銀黑色塑膠布忌避、透明塑膠布覆蓋(polyethylene traps and mulches)、太陽能熱處理(solarization)

 

 

2.以生物方法除滅或減少病原接種源(Biological Methods That Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum)

(1).抑菌()(suppressive soils):指在有病原菌存在下, 不易發病之土壤,了解其機制後, 可加入某些物質於土壤中, 使變成為抑菌()土。

(2).拮抗微生物(antagonistic microorganisms):與病原菌相拮抗, 因而減輕發病。

(3).陷阱作物(trap plants):常用於線蟲之防治,以某作物為誘餌,待線蟲來為害取食後, 再拔取燒燬之,再種植所想要的作物。

(4).拮抗作物(antagonistic plants):例如線蟲不喜歡孔雀草的分泌物,可種一排作物,一排孔雀草以防治線蟲。

 

3.以物理方法除滅或減少病原接種源(Physical Methods That Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum)

(1).熱處理(soil sterilization by heat, hot-water treatment of propagative organs, hot-air treatment of storage organs):消毒土壤,溫湯處理繁殖體及熱氣處理儲存物。

(2).去除某些光波光(eliminating certain light wavelengths):某些植物病原真菌產孢, 需有紫外線照射。以特製塑膠布吸收紫外光來隔絕低於390nm之光波長。

(3).儲存的穀物及水果保持乾燥(drying stored grains and fruit),以避免發病。

(4).冷藏以控制病害發生(disease control by refrigeration)

(5).放射線控制病害(disease control by radiation)γ raysno plant diseases are commercially controlled by radiation

 

4.以化學法除滅或減少病原接種源(Chemical Methods That Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum)

(1).消毒土壤(soil treatment with chemicals)、燻蒸(fumigation)

(2).減少包裝場所的接種源(disinfestation of warehouses)

(3).防治媒介昆蟲(control of insect vectors)

 

Ⅲ、經由免疫或改善作物的抗性(Disease Control by Immunizing or Improving the Resistance of, the Host)

1.交叉保護(Cross Protection):先接種弱病原品系以抗強病原品系,如番茄-Tobacco Mosaic Virus、柑桔-Citrus Tristeza Virus、木瓜-Papaya Ringspot Virus

2.系統性誘導抗病性(Induced Resistance: Systemic Acquired Resistance):事先接種若品系(weakly aggressive strains, 交叉保護cross protection)、無毒株(avirulent)、不親合系(incompatible forms)、合成化合物(synthetic chemicals, salicyclic acid 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid, INA)Benzothiadiazole(cga245704),以減輕作物病害的發生,又稱為systemic acquired resistance

3.植物防禦誘導劑(Plant Defense Activators):即施用合成化合物於植物,以減輕作物病害的發生。

4.改善栽培狀況(Improving the Growing Conditions of Plants):經由合理施肥、灌溉(如果樹Leucostoma (Valsa)潰瘍病)、排水、行株距、雜草防治,使作物生育良好,因而對病害有抗性。種子滲調(priming)以無機鹽類(osmopriming)或細質silicate clay (solid matrix priming)處理控制吸水,使其幼苗生長活力增強,增加幼苗對Pythium猝倒病(damping-off)之抗病性。

5.採用抗病品種(Use of Resistant Varieties)

 

Ⅳ、直接保護(Direct Protection of Plant From Pathogen)

 

一、以生物防治法直接保護(Direct Protection by Biological controls)

 

1.以真菌性拮抗菌(Fungal antagonists)作生物防治:

(1).Peniophora gigantea防治針葉樹Heterobasidium annosum引起的病害。

(2).以低毒性菌系(hypovirulent strains)防治栗枝枯病(Cryphonectria parasitica引起)

(3).防治土壤傳播性病害:如以菌根菌防治根部病害。

(4).防治地上部病害:如以Ampelomyces quisqualis防治白粉病(Sphaerotheca fuliginea引起)

(4).防治採收後病害:如以Trichoderma viride防治柑桔綠黴病(Penicillium digitatum引起)

2.以細菌性拮抗菌(Bacterial antagonists)作生物防治:

(1).防治土壤傳播性病害:如以Agrobacterium radiobacter K84菌系防治細菌性癌腫病(Agrobacterium tumefaciens引起)

(2).防治地上部病害:如以Pseudomonas cepacia防治落花生褐斑病(Cercospora arachidicola引起)

(3).防治採收後病害:如以Bacillus subtilis防治桃褐腐病(Monilinia fructicola引起)

(4).防治霜害冰核細菌:如以非冰核細菌(non-ice-nucleation-active bacteria)防治冰核細菌(Pseudomonas fluorescensErwinia herbicola)

3.以植物病原之病毒性寄生物(Viral parasites of plant pathogens)作生物防治: 如以噬菌體(bacteriophages)satellite RNAs(satRNAs)ds RNAs防治植物病原。

 

二、雜草之生物防治法(Biological control of Weeds):例如Collego本產品為炭疽病菌Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp aeschynomene 活的孢子。在1982年由Upjohn Co.負責製造。主要用途是防除大豆及水稻田頑強的豆科雜草northern jointvetch (Aeschynomene virginica)

 

三、以化學防治法直接保護(Direct Protection by Chemical controls)

 

1.化學藥劑使用的方式(Methods of application of chemicals for plant disease control)

 

(1).葉片噴灑或噴粉(foliage sprays and dusts)

(2).種子處理(seed treatment)

(3).土壤處理(soil treatment)

(4).樹木傷口的處理(treatment of tree wounds)

(5).採收後病害防治(control of postharvest diseases):採收前、冷藏或運出時,浸漬藥劑。

 

2.慎選殺菌劑的種類(Types chemicals used for plant disease control)

 

(1).無機殺菌劑(Inorganic chemicals used for plant disease control)copper compounds, inorganic sulfur compounds, carbonate compounds, phosphate and phosphonate compounds, film-forming compounds.

(2).有機殺菌劑:接觸保護性殺菌劑(Organic chemicals: contact protective fungicides)Organic sulfur compounds: Dithiocarbamates (Thiram, Maneb), Quinones, Aromatic compounds (PCNB, Chlorothalonil), Heterocyclic compounds (Captan, Iprodine, Vinclozolin).

(3).有機殺菌劑:系統性殺菌劑(Organic compounds: systemic fungicides)Acylalanines (Metalaxyl), Benzimidazoles (Benomyl, Thiabendazole, Thiophanate), Oxanthiins (Oxycarboxin), Organophosphate fungicides (Fosetyl-Al, Kitazin, Hinosan), Pyrimidines (Fenarimol), Triazole (Propiconazole, difenoconazole), Miscellaneous systemics (Imazalil, Terrazole).

(4).雜項有機殺菌劑(Miscellaneous organic fungicides)Dodine, Oxyquinoline sulfate.

(5).抗生素(Antibiotics)Streptomycin, Tetracycline.

(6).植物油和礦物油(Plant oils and petroleum oils):礦物油用於防治香蕉葉斑病(Mycosphaerella musicola引起)

(7).植物生長調節劑(Growth regulators):菸草噴灑生長抑制劑maleic hydrazide可抑制南方根瘤線蟲(Meloidogyne incognita)誘發巨大細胞(giant cells)

(8).殺線蟲劑(Nematicides)

a.含鹵烴類(halogenated hydrocarbons):屬麻醉性的燻蒸劑(narcotic fumigant),例如DDEDB(二溴乙烷)DBCP(二溴氯丙烷)Bromomethane(溴化甲烷),前三者已禁用。

b.有機磷殺蟲劑(organophosphate insecticides):大部分的有機殺蟲劑在土壤中易分解,故這類殺蟲劑當藥劑時,需不易分解且屬系統性者,作用於神經移轉酵素(neurotransmitter enzyme)及膽鹼脂酵素(cholinesterase )使線蟲麻痺死亡。例如福瑞松、二硫松、普伏松、繁福松、芬滅松。

c.異硫氰酸鹽(isothiocyanates)作用機制使含-SH基酵素失去活性。例如斯美地、滴滴滅、邁隆。

d.Carbamates之作用機制為抑制膽鹼酯酵素(ChE):得滅克(地蜜,禁用)、加保扶、歐殺滅、Carbosulfan

e.Miscellaneous nematicidesChloropicrin, Avermectins.

 

3.瞭解殺菌劑的作用機制(Mechanisms of action of chemicals used to control plant diseases)

(1).fosetyl-Al, to reduce infection by increasing the resistance of the host to the pathogen

(2).protectants, used for their toxicity directly to the pathogen and are effective at the points of entry of the pathogens

(3).Mechanisms of action: direct toxicity, inhibiting the ability of the pathogen to synthesize certain of its cell wall substances, acting as solvents of the cell membranes (damaging) of the pathogen, by forming complexes with certain essential coenzymes (inactivating) of the pathogen, by inactivating enzymes and causing general precipitation of proteins of the pathogen

(4).protectants (non-specific) ,

(5).systematic fungicides and antibiotics, absorbed by the host, translocated internally through the plant, effective against the pathogen at the infection locus both before and after infection has become established

(6).chemotherapeutants, chemicals that can cure plants from infections that have already become established

(7).chemotherapy, control of plant diseases with chemotherapeutants

(8).systematic fungicides (specific): oxanthiins inhibit the enzyme succinic dehydrogenase, benzimidazoles interfere with nuclear division (binding to spindle microtubules), polyoxin & organophosphate inhibit chitin synthesis, sterol-inhibiting fungicides (fenapanil, imazalil, prochloraz, tridimefon, trifoline, etaconazole) inhibit ergosterol (components of fungal membranes) biosynthesis

 

4.注意植物病原菌的抗藥性(Resistance of pathogens to chemicals)

(1)抗藥性的產生:decreased permeability of pathogen cell membranes to the chemical, detoxification of the chemical through modification of its structure or through binding it to a cell constituent, decreased conversion to the real toxic compound, decreased affinity at the reactive site in the cell, bypassing a blocked reaction through a shift in metabolism, and compensation for the effect of inhibition by producing more the inhibiting product

(1)抗藥性的預防:using mixtures of specific systemic and wide-spectrum protectant fungicides, by alternating spray with systemic and protectant fungicides, by spraying during half the season with systemic and the other half with protectant fungicides

5.化學方法防治作物病害的規範(Restriction on chemical control of plant diseases)

(1).新農藥登記之審查。

(2).收穫前停止用藥日數(安全採收期)(the number of days that must elapse before harvest of a crop after use of a particular chemical on the crop)

(3).單位面積農田之推薦用藥量(the amount of the chemical that can be used per application must not exceed a certain amount)

 

.植物病害之綜合防治法(integrated control of Plant Diseases): Control of plant disease is most successful and economical when all available pertinent information regarding the crop, its pathogens, the history of disease in previous years, varietal resistance to diseases, the environmental conditions expected to prevail, locality, availability of materials, land, and labor, costs are taken into account in developing the control program. Usually, an integrated control program is aimed against all diseases affecting a crop.

1.eliminate or reduce the initial inoculum

2.reduce the effectiveness of initial inoculum

3.increase the resistance of the host

4.delay the onset of disease

5.slow the secondary cycles

一、多年生作物之綜合防治法(Integrated Control in a Perennial Crop)

 

二、一年生作物之綜合防治法(Integrated Control in an Annual Crop)

 

參考書目:

  1. Agrios, G. N. 1997. Plant Pathology 4th ed., Academic Press, New York, 635pp.

 

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